A Framework to Assess the Supports Provided for Muslim Students in a Public School
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.29173/rssj4Keywords:
Muslim students, supports, minority, public school supports, Islamophobia, Education, Multiculturalism, Well-Being, BelongingAbstract
Many studies and surveys show that Islam is a misunderstood religion in many areas of the world. Therefore, Muslims in the West are a “poorly understood” minority group (Environics Institute, 2016). While other ethnic or racial minorities feel moderately comfortable defending themselves, their groups, and asserting their identities, Muslim youth “face qualitatively different identity tasks than do many of their peers,” largely due to feelings of “being under attack or scrutiny because of their religion” (Stonebanks & Sensoy, 2009). The purpose of this article is to present a framework that educators and administrators can use to identify the current supports provided for Muslim students and the gaps in what is available to help Muslim students feel welcomed in their schools. The framework is a two-dimensional matrix with six major challenges that Muslim students experience and the corresponding supports utilizing Banks’ Five Multicultural Dimensions (Content Integration, Knowledge Construction, Equity Pedagogy, Prejudice Reduction, Empowering School Culture and School Structures). The six challenges most prominently faced by Muslim youth, as articulated in the literature review and documents provided by school boards on the guidelines for different faith-groups are: religious practices, dress code, sexual ethics, stereotypes and biases, Islamophobia, and curriculum-related challenges.
References
Abukhattala, I. “The new bogeyman under the bed: Image formation of Islam in the Western school curriculum and media.” In J.L. Kinchelow & S.R. Steinberg (eds.), The miseducation of the West: How schools and the media distort our understanding of the Islamic world. Praeger, 2004.
Ahmed A. “Yearning for ‘Normal’ Lives.” Annals of Social Studies Education Research for Teachers, 2no. 1 (2021), 31-39.
Ahmed, Asma. Exploring the Experiences of Muslim Students in an Urban Ontario Public School. Phd diss., University of Western Ontario, 2016.
Adams, J. E. Jr. Taking charge of the curriculum: Teacher networks and curriculum implementation (New York ed.). New York: Teachers College Press, 2000.
Allport, Gordon W. The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1954.
Amjad A. “Muslim students’ experiences and perspectives on current teaching practices in Canadian schools” Power and Education, 10 no. 3 (2018), 315-332.
Anwar, M. Young Muslims in a Multi-Cultural Society. London, Islamic Foundation, 1986.
Ashforth, B. E., & Mael, F. A. “Organizational identity and strategy as a context for the individual”. In J. A. C. Baum & J. E. Dutton (Eds.), Advances in strategic management, vol. 13. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1996.
Banks, James A. An introduction to multicultural education. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1994.
Banks, James A. “Multicultural education: Historical development, dimensions, and practice”. In J.A. Banks & C.A.M. Banks (Eds.), Handbook of research on multicultural education. New York: Macmillan, 1995.
Banks, James A. “Approaches to multicultural curricular reform”. In Lee, E., Menkart, D., & Okazawa-Rey, M. (Eds). Beyond Heroes and Holidays: A Practical Guide to K-12 Antiracist, Multicultural Education and Staff Development. Washington, DC: Network of Educators on the Americas, 1998.
Banks, James A. Citizenship education and diversity implications for teacher education. Journal of teacher education, 52 no. 1 (2005), 5-16.
Banks, James A. “Teaching for social justice, diversity, and citizenship in a global world.” The Educational Forum 68, no. 4 (2004): 296-305.
Banks, James. A., and Cherry A. McGee Banks. Multicultural Education: Issues and Perspectives. Toronto: Allyn & Bacon, 1989.
Banks, James. A., and Cherry A. McGee Banks. Multicultural education: issues and perspectives. New York: Wiley, 2001.
Banks, James. A., and Cherry A. McGee Banks. Handbook of research on multicultural education (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2004.
Barrow, R., & Milburn, G. A critical dictionary of educational concepts. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1990.
Basadur, M. “Leading others to think innovatively together: Creative leadership.” The Leadership Quarterly, 15, (2004), 103-121.
Beauchamp, G. “Basic components of a curriculum theory.” In A. Bellack & H. Kliebard (eds.), Curriculum and evaluation. Berkeley: McCutchan, 1997.Bennet, C. I. Comprehensive multicultural education: Theory and practice (5th ed.). New York: Allyn and Bacon, 2002.
Berns McGown, R. Muslims in the Diaspora. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999.
Berry, J. W., & Annis, R. C. “Acculturative stress: The role of ecology, culture and differentiation”. Journal of cross-cultural psychology, 5 no. 4 (1974), 382-406.
Bhyat, A. “Bias in the curriculum: A comparative look at two boards of education”. Unpublished paper, Department of Sociology, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Toronto, 1993.
Bornstein, R. F. “Exposure and affect: Overview and meta-analysis of research. 1968–1987”. Psychological bulletin, 106 no. 2 (1989), 265.
Brah, A. Cartographies of diaspora: contesting identities. London, Routledge, 1996.
Burnett, Gary. Varieties of multicultural education: An introduction. New York, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education, 1994.
Byrne, D. Social Exclusion. Philadelphia: Open University Press, 1999.
CAIR-CAN. Life for Canadian Muslims the morning after: A 9/11 wake-up call. Ottawa: Canadian Council on American-Islamic Relations, 2002.
Chase, S. “Niqabs ‘rooted in a culture that is anti-women,’ Harper says.” Globe and Mail, 2015. Retrieved October 15, 2016 from http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/niqabs-rooted-in-a-culture-that-is-anti-women-harper-says/article23395242/
Chalabi, M. “Americans are more like to like a Muslim if they know one.” FiveThirtyEight, 2015. Retrieved on September 30, 2016 from http://fivethirtyeight.com/datalab/americans-are-more-likely-to-like-muslims-if-they-know-one/
Chan, E., & Schlein, C. “Supporting Muslim students in secular public schools.” Diaspora, Indigenous, and Minority Education, 4 no. 4 (2010), 253-267.
Chamberlain, S. P. “Recognizing and responding to cultural differences in the education of culturally and linguistically diverse learners”. Intervention in School and Clinic, 40 no. 4 (2005), 195-211.
Cherubini, L., Hodson, J., Manley-Casimir, M., & Muir, C. ‘Closing the gap’ at the peril of widening the void: Implications of the Ontario Ministry of Education’s policy for Aboriginal education. Canadian Journal of Education, 33 no. 2 (2010), 329-355.
Childs, R., Broad, K., Gallagher-Mackay, K., Sher, Y., Escayg, K. A., & McGrath, C. The teachers Ontario needs: Pursuing equity in teacher education program admissions.Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto, 2010.
Cho, G., & DeCastro-Ambrosetti, D. “Is ignorance bliss? Pre-service teachers' attitudes toward multicultural education”. The High School Journal, 89 no. 2 (2005), 24-28.
Chung, A. “Canadians less tolerant after 9/11: Poll”. Vancouver Sun, September 7, 2011. http://www.vancouversun.com/news/9-11-anniversary/Canadians+less+tolerant+after+Poll/5366720/story.html
Darder, A. Culture and power in the classroom: A critical foundation for bicultural education. New York, NY: Bergin & Garvey, 1991.
d’Amato, J. Resistance and compliance in minority classrooms. In E. Jacob & C. Jordan (Eds.), Minority education: Anthropological perspectives. Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1993.
Dei, G. S. “The role of Afrocentricity in the inclusive curriculum in Canadian schools”. Canadian Journal of Education 21 no. 2 (1996), 170—86.
Dei, G. S. “Chapter One: Critical Issues in Anti-Racist Research Methodologies: An Introduction,” in Counterpoints 252 (2005): pp.1-27. ‘
Dei, G.S., James, I., Karumanchery, L., James-Wilson, S. & Zine, J. Removing the margins: The challenges and possibilities of inclusive schooling. Toronto, ON: Canadian Scholars’ Press, 2000.
Dei, G.S., James, I., Karumanchery, L., James-Wilson, S. & Zine, J. (2002). Inclusive schooling: A teacher’s companion to removing the margins. Toronto: Canadian Scholars’ Press
Donald, J., & Rattansi, A. T. (Eds). “Race,” culture and difference. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992.
Dovidio, J. F. “On the nature of contemporary prejudice: The third wave”. Journal of Social Issues 57 no. 4 (2001), 829–849.
Ernst-Slavit, G., & Slavit, D. “Educational reform, mathematics, & diverse learners”. Multicultural Education. 14 no. 4 (2007), 20–27.
Emerick, Y. What Islam is all about. Lebanon: Noorat Inc, 2007.
Environics Institute. Survey of Muslims in Canada 2016. Environics Institute, 2016.
Erez, M., & Earley, P. C. Culture, self-identity, and work. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Esposito, J. What everyone needs to know about Islam? England: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Esposito, J. Oxford Dictionary of Islam. England: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Fillipoff, S. “Just what is multicultural education?” The B.C. TeacherJanuary-February (1983), 119-120.
Fine, S. “Muslim convert attacked while wearing niqab in Toronto.” Globe and Mail, 2015. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/muslim-convert-attacked-while-wearing-niqab-in-toronto/article26646425/
Fisk, S. T., & Neuberg, S.L. “A continuum of impression formation, from category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation”. Advances in Experimental Social psychology, 23, (1990), 1-74.
Fleras, A. & Leonard-Elliot, J. Multiculturalism in Canada. Toronto: Nelson, 1992.
Fordham, S. “Racelessness as a factor in Black students' school success: Pragmatic strategy or pyrrhic victory?”. Harvard Educational Review, 58 no. 1 (1988), 54-85.
Fordham, S., & Ogbu, J. U. “Black students' school success: Coping with the “burden of ‘acting White.'” The Urban Review 18 no. 3 (1986), 176-206.
Foshay, A. W. “Curriculum”. In R. I. Ebel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of educational research: A project of the American Educational Research Association (4th ed.) New York: Macmillan, 1969.
Fullan, Michael. Great to Excellent: Launching the next stage of Ontario’s education Agenda. Province of Ontario, Ministry of Education, 2012.
Gamble, T. K., & Gamble, M. Communication works (7th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill, 2002.
Gay, G. “Changing Conceptions of Multicultural Education”. In H. Baptiste B & M. Baptise (Eds.) Developing Multicultural Process in Classroom Instructions: Competencies for Teachers. Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1979.
Gay, G. Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice. New York: Teachers College Press, 2000.
Ghanea Bassiri, K. Competing visions of Islam in the United States: A study of Los Angeles. London: Greenwood, 1997.
Goldstein, H. Experiential learning: A foundation for social work education and practice. Alexandria, Va: Council on Social Work Education, 2001.
Goodson, I. F. Studying curriculum. New York: Teachers College Press, 1994.
Guo, Y Diversity in public education: acknowledging immigration parent knowledge. Edmonton AB: Prairie Metropolis Centre, 2012.
Hammer, K. “Toronto District School Board defends hosting Muslim prayer sessions” Globe and Mail, 2011, http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/toronto/toronto-district-school-boarddefends-hosting-muslim-prayer-sessions/article585899/
Helly, D. “Are Muslims discriminated against in Canada since September 2001” Journal of Canadian Studies, 36 no. 1 (2004), 24-47.
Hewstone, M., & Giles, H. “Social groups and social stereotypes: A review and model of intergroup communication”. In M. Hewstone & H. Giles (Eds.), Sociolinguistics London: Edward Arnold, 1986.
Hildebrandt, A. “Aboriginal people, Muslims face discrimination most: poll”. CBC News, 2010, http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/2010/03/15/discrimination-poll-2010.html
Hoopes, D. & Pusch, M. “Definition of terms”. In M.D. Pusch (Ed.) Multicultural education: A cross-cultural training approach. Chicago, IL: Intercultural Network Inc, 1979.
Hopson, R. “People like me” Racialized teachers and a call for community. PhD thesis, University of Toronto, 2013.
Hughes, J. N., Luo, W., Kwok, O. M., & Loyd, L. K. “Teacher-student support, effortful engagement, and achievement: A 3-year longitudinal study”. Journal of educational psychology, 100no. 1 (2008), 1.
Jackson, P. W. Life in classrooms. New York: Hold, Rinehart & Winston, 1968.
Jacobson, J. Islam in transition: religion and identity among British Pakistani youth. London, Routledge, 1998.
Kassam, A. “Locating identity and gender construction in a post 9/11 world: The case of the hijabi girl”. Intercultural Education, 18 no. 4 (2007), 355–359.
Keung, N. “Ontario facing ‘epidemic of Islamophobia’ survey finds”. The Star, 2016, https://www.thestar.com/news/immigration/2016/07/04/ontario-facing-epidemic-of-islamophobia-survey-finds.html
Kibra, N. Young British Muslims: Identity, Culture, Politics and the Media. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2010.
Kincheloe, J., & Steinberg, S. Changing multiculturalism. Buckingham, UK and Philadelphia: Open University Press, 1998.
Kugler, J., & West-Burns, N. “The CUS Framework for Culturally Responsive and Relevant Pedagogy”. Our Schools, Our Selves, 19 no. 3 (2010).
Ladd, G. W., Birch, S. H., & Buhs, E. S. “Children's social and scholastic lives in kindergarten: Related spheres of influence?”. Child Development, 70 no. 6 (1999), 1373-1400.
Levy, S.R., Rosenthal, L., & Herrera-Alcazar, A. “Racial and ethnic prejudice among children”. In J.L. Chin (Ed.), The psychology of prejudice and discrimination. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 2010.
Longstreet, W. S., & Shane, H. G. Curriculum for a new millennium. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1993.
Lund, Darren and Paul Carr. “Antiracist Education.” In Provenzo, E.F. Encyclopedia of the Social and Cultural Foundations of Education. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008.
Lynch, Eleanor W., and Hanson, Marci J. “Community Developing Health Cross-cultural Nursing.” In Developing cross-cultural competence: A guide for working with young children and their families. Baltimore: Brookes Publishing, 1992.
Mansfield, E. and Kehoe, J. “A critical examination of anti-racist education.” Canadian Journal of Education, 19, no. 4 (1994), 418-430.
Marsh, C. J. (ed.) Perspectives: Key concepts for understanding curriculum 1. London & Washington, D.C.: The Falmer Press, 1997.
McGregor, J. The effect of role playing and anti-racist teaching on student racial prejudice: A meta-analysis of research. Paper presented at CSSE, 1990.
Meehan, B. T., Hughes, J. N., & Cavell, T. A. “Teacher–student relationships as compensatory resources for aggressive children”. Child development, 74 no. 4 (2003), 1145-1157.
Mehta, D. “‘She was punched all over and kicked’: Police say ‘no doubt’ attack on Muslim woman ‘hate-motivated’”. National Post, 2015, http://news.nationalpost.com/toronto/police-treating-alleged-assault-robbery-of-muslim-woman-near-school-on-monday-as-hate-crime
Merry, M. S. “Social exclusion of Muslim youth in Flemish and French speaking Belgian schools”. Comparative Education Review, 49 no. 1 (2005), 1-23.
Miller, A. “Woman Wearing Hijab Attacked in Hate Crime”. Global News, December 4, 2016, http://globalnews.ca/news/2381216/woman-wearing-hijab-attacked-in-hate-crime-related-assault-in-mississauga/
Modood, T. “Ethnicity and intergenerational identities and adaptations in Britain: the socio-political context”. In M. Rutter & M. Tienda (Eds) Ethnicity and causal mechanisms. New York/Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Mohamad, M. (1996, April 16). The Misunderstood Religion. The Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies Oxford. Retrieved on August 10, 2016 from https://s3.amazonaws.com/berkley-center/960416MohamadIslamMisunderstoodReligion.pdf
Moodley, K. “The Predicament of racial affirmative action: A critical review of Equality Now”. Queen’s Quarterly 91 (1984), 795-806.
Mukherjee, A., & Thomas, B. A glossary of terms.Toronto: Toronto Board of Education, n.d.
Murad, K. Muslim Youth in the West. London: Islamic Foundation, 1986.
Nagra, B., & Peng, I. “Has multiculturalism really failed? A Canadian Muslim perspective”. Religions, 4 no. 4 (2013), 603-620.
Nieto, Sonia. Affirming Diversity: The Sociopolitical Context of Multicultural Education. New York: Longman, 2000.
Niyozov, S., & Pluim, G. “Teachers’ perspectives on the education of Muslim students: A missing voice in Muslim education research”. Curriculum inquiry, 39 no. 5 (2009), 637-677.
Nuttall, J. (2016). “New Guide created to combat Islamophobia in schools”. The Tyee, 2016, http://thetyee.ca/News/2016/08/26/Islamophobia-School-Resources/
Olneck, M. R. “Immigrants and education”. In J. A. Banks, & C. A. M. Banks (Eds.), Handbook of research on multicultural education. New York: Macmillan, 1995.
Parker-Jenkins, M. Children of Islam: A teacher’s guide to meeting the needs of Muslim pupils.Stoke-on-Trent, UK: Trentham, 1995.
Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. “A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory”. Journal of personality and social psychology. 90 no. 5 (2006), 751.
Pianta, R. C., Hamre, B., & Stuhlman, M. “Relationships between teachers and children”. In W. Reynolds & G. Miller (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of psychology (Vol. 7): Educational psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2003.
Plant, E. A., & Devine, P. G. The antecedents and implications of interracial anxiety. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29 no. 6 (2003), 790-801.
Province of Ontario. Ministry of Education. Achieving Excellence: A Renewed Vision for Education in Ontario. 2014.
Province of Ontario. Ministry of Education. Individual Education Plan. 2004.
Province of Ontario. Ministry of Education. Reach Every Student Energizing Ontario Education. Toronto: Queen’s Printer for Ontario, 2008.
Province of Ontario. Ministry of Education. Equity and Inclusion Strategy. 2009.
Province of Ontario. Ministry of Education. Policy/Program Memorandum No. 119: Developing and implementing equity and inclusive education policies in Ontario schools. 2009.
Province of Ontario. Ministry of Education. Realizing the promise of diversity: Ontario’s equity and inclusive education strategy. Toronto: Queen’s Printer for Ontario, 2009.
Province of Ontario. Ministry of Education. Growing Success: Assessment, Evaluation, Reporting in Ontario Schools. 2010.
Province of Ontario. Ministry of Education. School Effectiveness framework. Toronto: Queen’s Printer for Ontario, 2010
Province of Ontario. Ministry of Education. Learning for all. 2011.
Province of Ontario. Ministry of Education. Closing the Achievement Gap. 2012.
Province of Ontario. Ministry of Education. “Ontario Strengthening and Moderninzing Child Care Rules.” Ontario Newsroom, May 9, 2016.
Province of Ontario. Ministry of Education and Training. Antiracism and ethnocultural equity in school boards: Guidelines for policy development and implementation. 1993.
Province of Ontario. Ontario Human Rights Commission. Policy on creed and the accommodation of religious observances. 1996.
Province of Ontario. Ontario Human Rights Commission. Terms of Settlement [between OHRC and the Ministry of Education], April 10, 2007, http://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/resources/news/edsettlementen.
Province of Ontario. Ontario Royal Commission on Education & Hope, J. A. Report of the Royal Commission on Education in Ontario, 1950. Baptist Johnston, Printer to the King, 1950.
Rezai-Rashti, G. “The dilemma of working with minority female students in Canadian high schools”. Canadian Woman Studies, 14 no. 2 (1994), 76-82.
Rezai-Rashti, G. Introduction. Canadian and International Education, 33 no. 1 (2004), 1-5.
Richardson, R. “Curriculum, ethos, and leadership: Confronting Islamophobia in UK education”. In Confronting Islamophobia in educational practice. Staffordshire, UK: Trentham, 2004.
Runnymede Trust Commission. Islamophobia: A challenge for us all. London, England: The Runnymede Trust, 1997.
Ryan, J. “Promoting inclusive school-community relationships: Administrator strategies for empowering and enabling parents in diverse contexts”. Journal of Teaching and Learning, 2 no. 1 (2002), 1-20.
Ryan, J. Inclusive Leadership. Jossey-Bass: Indianapolis Indian, 2006.
Ryan, J., Pollack, K., & Antonelli, F. “Teacher Diversity in Canada: Leaky Pipelines, Bottlenecks, and Glass Ceilings”. Canadian Journal of Education 32 no. 3 (2009), 591-617.
Shah, S. “Leading multiethnic schools: A new understanding of Muslim youth identity”. Educational Management & Leadership, 34 no. 2 (2006), 215–237.
Shamma, R. “Muslim Youth of North America: Issues and Concerns”. In Haque, A. (ed) Muslims and Islamization in North America: Problems and Prospects. Beltsville, MD: Amana Publications, 1999.
Short, Geoffrey and Bruce Carrington. “The Development of Children’s Understanding of Jewish Identity and Culture.” School Psychology International 13, no. 1 (1992), 73-89.
Silbereisen, R. K., & Kracke, B. “Self-reported maturational timing and adaptation in adolescence”. In J. Schulenberg, J. L.Maggs, & K.Hurrelmann (Eds.), Health risks and developmental transitions during adolescence. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Sirin, S., & Fine, M. Muslim American Youth: Understanding Hyphenated Identities through Multiple Methods. New York: New York University Press, 2008.
Sisak, M. “Hateful backlash stokes Muslim children’s anxiety”. Globe and Mail, 2015, http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/hateful-backlash-stokes-muslim-childrens-anxiety/article27755201/
Sleeter, Chirstine. E. and Carl A. Grant. Making choices for multicultural education: five approaches to race, class and gender. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill, 1999.
Stephan, W.G. & Renfro, C.L. “The role of the threat in intergroup relations”. In D.M. Mackie & E.R. Smith (Eds.) From prejudice to intergroup emotions: Differentiated reactions to social groups. Psychology Press, 2002.
Stephan, W. G., & Stephan C. W. The role of ignorance in intergroup relations. In M.B. Brewer & N. Miller (Eds.), Groups in contact: The psychology of desegregation. Orlando: Academic Press, 1984.
Stonebanks, C. D. & Sensoy, Ö. Muslim voices in school: narratives of identity & pluralism. Boston: Sense Publishing, 2009.
Sultana, A. “Patriarchy and Women’s Subordination: A Theoretical Analysis”. The Arts Faculty Journal. 4 no. 1 (2012), 18.
Sweet, L. God in the classroom: The controversial issue of religion in Canada’s schools. McClelland & Stewart, 1997.
Tanner, D., & Tanner, L. Curriculum development: Theory into practice. New York: Macmillan, 1975.
Thomas, B. “Principles of Anti-racist Education”. Currents: Readings in Race Relations. 2, (1984), 20-24.
Toor, Irfan. “Edi Blog -Ramadan Ready.” Ontario Principals Council, 2022, https://www.principals.ca/en/who-we-are/ramadan-ready.aspx.
Tomlinson, C., & Jarvis, J. “Teaching beyond the book. Educational Leadership”. 64 no. 1 (2006), 16–21.
Toronto District School Board. Guidelines & procedures for the accommodation of religious requirements, practices, and observances. Toronto: Toronto District School Board, 2000.
Toulouse, P. (2013). Fostering literacy success for First Nations, Métis and Inuit students. What Works? Research into Practice, 45.
Troyna, B. (1992). Can you see the join? An historical analysis of multicultural and antiracist education policies. In D. Gill, B. Mayor, & M. Blair (Eds.), Racism and Education: Structures and Strategies. London, UK: Sage Publication.
Troyna, B. & Carrington, B. Education, racism and reform. London, UK: Routledge, 1990.
Villegas, A.M., & Lucas, T. “Preparing culturally responsive teachers: Rethinking the curriculum”. Journal of Teacher Education. 53 no. 1 (2002), 20–32.
Wane, N. N., Kempf, A., & Simmons, M. The politics of cultural knowledge. Rotterdam: Sense, 2011.
Wolfe, D. A., Jaffe, P. G., & Crooks, C. V. Adolescent risk behaviors: Why teens experiment and strategies to keep them safe. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006.
Wood, L., & Davis, B. G. “Designing and evaluating higher education curricula”. AAHE-ERIC/Higher Education Research Report No. 8. Washington, D. C.: The American Association for Higher Education, 1978
Yakbuski, K. “With burkini bans, France buries its head in the sand”. Globe and Mail, 2016.
Yousif, A. Muslims in Canada: A Question of Identity.Ottawa, Ontario: Legas Press, 1993.
Zine, Jasmin. “Muslim students in public schools: education and the politics of religious identity.” MA thesis, University of Toronto, 1997.
Zine, Jasmine. Muslim youth in Canadian schools: Education and the politics of religious identity. Anthropology & Education Quarterly 32, no. 4 (2001): 399–423.
Zine, Jasmine. Canadian Islamic schools: Unraveling the politics of faith, gender, knowledge, and identity. Toronto,CA: University of Toronto Press, 2008.
Zinga, D. Navigating multiculturalism: Negotiating change. Newcastle, England: Cambridge Scholars Press, 2006.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Dr. Asma Ahmed
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
